The Roots of Sectarian Divide

By Don Duncan, David Austin Gura, and Yasmina Hatem

Demographers caution that their estimates of Muslim populations are not precise, but many agree there are around 1.4 billion Muslims worldwide. Most identify themselves as Shiites (about 15 per cent) or Sunnis (about 85 per cent). Shiites are a majority in Iran, Iraq and Bahrain; other countries with sizeable Shiite populations include Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Kuwait, and Pakistan.

The Sunni-Shiite divide is rooted in the history of the leadership succession after the Prophet Mohammed’s death in 632. One group of Mohammed’s followers believed that the rightful successor was Abu Bakr, the prophet’s closest companion. Another believed that the succession should be hereditary, with Ali ibn Abi Talib, Mohammad’s cousin and son-in-law, becoming the caliph, or Muslim leader. Abu Bakr was chosen caliph, but the dispute over succession catalyzed the schism that eventually led to the creation of two sects: Sunni (descended from those who supported Abu Bakr) and Shiite (Ali’s supporters)

Over the next decades, the rift deepened, culminating in a crucial battle in 680, when Hussein, a son of Ali and the leader of the Shiite sect, fought Sunni forces at Karbala, located in present-day Iraq. Hussein was defeated by a superior force, his followers were massacred, and Hussein himself was beheaded. The anniversary of these events is one of the most important dates in the Shiite calendar.

Another fundamental difference centers on the coming of the Mahdi, or Messiah.  Shiites, who call their leaders “imams,” believe that in 939, God hid the twelfth imam, Muhammad al-Mahdi, from humankind. Shiites believe that the Hidden Imam will reappear at an undetermined date to bring peace and justice to the world.  Sunnis do not believe that the Hidden Imam is the Mahdi.

The sectarian divide, rooted in differences over religious ritual and interpretation, grew increasingly political during the 20th century. Saddam Hussein, a member of Iraq’s Sunni minority, ruled ruthlessly over the country’s Shiite majority. In 1980, Saddam went to war against Iran, in a failed attempt to topple its Shiite leaders and seize the country’s rich oil reserves.

The fall of Saddam after the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003 was supposed to put Iraq on a path to democracy, according to Bush administration officials. Instead, it unleashed sectarian hostilities that had been held in check by Saddam’s dictatorship. Shiite clerics emerged among new political leaders, underscoring the sectarian divide and the deep grievances of the long-suppressed Iraqi Shiite majority. Meanwhile, Sunni followers of the deposed dictator launched violent attacks on American troops, as well as on shrines and residents in Shiite neighborhoods.